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Association between weekend catch-up sleep and depression in US adults

Abstract

Background

Depression is one of the most prevalent mental disorders and causes a serious economic and medical burden on society. This research assessed the correlation between weekend catch-up sleep (WCS) and depression in US adults aged鈥夆墺鈥20 years.

Methods

Cross-sectional data were obtained from individuals with complete WCS and Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) data who participated in the 2017鈥2020 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). A logistic regression analysis was conducted to evaluate the possible independent conjunction between depression and WCS. Subgroup analysis and interaction tests have been carried out.

Results

A total of 7,795 individuals with an average PHQ-9 level of 3.27鈥壜扁4.25 were analyzed. The prevalence of depression was 9.11% overall, and participants in the quartile 3 (WCS 1鈥2听h) tended to have lowest rates of depression (Quartile 1: 9.49%; Quartile 2: 9.95%; Quartile 3: 7.03%; Quartile 4: 8.75%; p鈥=鈥0.014). The incidence of depression was found to be less correlated with 1鈥2听h of WCS (OR鈥=鈥0.74, 95% CI: 0.55, 0.99). Individuals with less than one hour or more than two hours of WCS did not have a significantly different risk of depression than individuals without WCS.

Conclusions

Moderate catch-up sleep on weekends was linked to a decreased likelihood of depression.

Peer Review reports

Background

One of the most common psychological diseases worldwide, depression was listed in the Global Burden of Disease research as the third most severe health-causing impairment originating from a medical condition worldwide. With the worldwide coronavirus pandemic, the incidence of depression in adults jumped from 8.5% to a staggering 27.8%, and the trend continues to climb [1]. Depression has a spectrum of symptoms, including emotion and cognitive dysfunction. It not only leads to a decreased standard of life for the person suffering, but it also increases the risk of many diseases [2] and even leads to death [3].

Adequate sleep is a critical component of staying healthy, and sleep deprivation may be related to an increased risk of many chronic diseases. However, research findings show that the percentage of short sleepers in the U.S. has expanded significantly during the previous several decades, probably due to work schedules and socialization demands [4]. This is called weekend catch-up sleep (WCS), as some individuals compensate for their lackluster workday sleep by using the weekend. WCS has positive effects on patients with hypertension, hyperglycemia, and hyperlipidemia [5,6,7]. People who catch up on 1鈥2听h of sleep on weekends are less likely to suffer from depression compared with those who fail to, according to a 2021 research based on a Korean population [8]. However, there are no studies on WCS and depression for the U.S. population.

Therefore, the aim of this research is to investigate the connection between WCS and depression in a substantial, nationally representative number of the US population. Data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) was gathered from January 2017 to March 2020.

Methods

Survey description

NHANES is a nationally designed, comprehensive, and integrated study approved by the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) to assess the basic health condition and nutrient level of the population of the United States on a national basis [9]. Data are usually collected every two years and include routine demographic data, data on food and energy intake, laboratory data, examination data, and self-reported questionnaire responses. However, the COVID-19 epidemic disrupted data collection in March 2020, so the 2019鈥2020 data were merged with the 2017鈥2018 to form a representative sample of the 2017鈥2020 pre-pandemic March data. It is for the period January 2017 to March 2020 that we obtained.

The National Center for Health Statistics ethical review board at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) authorized the survey procedures. Before taking part in the study, everyone involved submitted written permission. The public may access all complete NHANES study methodologies and data at .

Study population

Since only the NHANES 2017鈥2020 survey period had details on weekdays and weekends, it was employed to compute weekend catch-up sleep duration for this study.

For this analysis, only participants with comprehensive data regarding their WCS and PHQ-9 scores were included. Initially, 15,560 individuals were enrolled. After excluding those under 20 years old (n鈥=鈥6,328), with incomplete sleep data (n鈥=鈥122), or missing PHQ-9 scores (n鈥=鈥1,315), a total of 7,795 participants were included in the final analysis. Figure听1 displays a flowchart illustrating the process of screening participants.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Flowchart of the sample selection from NHANES 2017鈥2020

Initially, 15,560 participants were enrolled. After excluding those under 20 years old (n鈥=鈥6,328), with missing WCS data (n鈥=鈥122), or PHQ-9 scores (n鈥=鈥1,315), a total of 7,795 participants were included in the final analysis

Definition of weekend catch-up sleep duration and depression

Sleep duration was assessed via a standardized NHANES survey question, where participants reported their average sleep hours per night separately for weekdays and weekends. Based on previous studies [10,11,12], weekend catch-up sleep (WCS) was calculated as the difference between the average sleep duration per night on weekends (Saturday and Sunday nights) and the average sleep duration per night on weekdays. We classified WCS duration into WCS<0, 0鈥夆墹鈥塛CS<1, 1鈥夆墹鈥塛CS<2, and WCS>2 for analysis.

Depression was assessed using a nine-item Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) questionnaire in NHANES [13]. This screening instrument incorporates the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV) depression diagnostic criteria [14]. It was administered to ascertain how often feelings of despair happened during the previous two weeks. There are 27 total points available, with 0鈥3 scores allocated to the answers classified 鈥渘ot at all,鈥 鈥渟everal days,鈥 鈥渕ore than half the days,鈥 and 鈥渘early every day鈥 for each symptom inquiry. The respondent is deemed to have depression if their PHQ-9 level is higher or equal to 10.

The WCS was intended to be an exposure factor in this research, whereas depression was considered a consequence variable.

Selection of covariates

The covariates selected for inclusion in this study encompassed gender (classified as male or female), age(in years), race (including Mexican American/other Hispanic/non-Hispanic White/non-Hispanic Black/other races), education attainment (category below high school, high school or general educational development, and above high school), body mass index (BMI in kg/m2; classified as underweight, normal weight, overweight and obese according to BMI value less than 18.5, 18.5鈥24.9, 25-29.9 and more than 30), blood lipid level (included total cholesterol, triglycerides, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, all unit in mmol/L), hypertension (marked as yes or no), diabetes (marked as yes or no) and insomnia (marked as yes or no). The public can access the comprehensive measurement procedures for these variables at .

Statistical analysis

The software for statistical analysis EmpowerStats () and R 3.4.3 () were employed during all assessments. For continual variables, the baseline features were represented as mean鈥壜扁塻tandard deviation (SD), and for categorical ones, in ratios. The Kruskal-Wallis rank-sum test and analysis of variance (ANOVA) test were applied to examine the statistical significance of variations in continuous variables across the various groups. The Chi-square test was utilized to calculate the significance of variations in categories. To identify the uncorrelated connection between exposure factors (WCS) and outcomes (depression), three models were employed in the multiple logistic regression analysis: non-adjusted model; model 1 adjusts for key demographic variables; model 2 adjusts for all included covariates. Subgroup analysis and interaction tests were utilized to gain insight into the link between WCS and depression in various demographic categories. A p-value of <鈥0.05 was considered statistically significant.

Results

Baseline characteristics of participants

In the present investigation, 7,795 individuals and an average age of 50.71鈥壜扁17.43 years were recruited. Of these, 51.01% were female. The four groupings extended of WCS were WCS<0, 0鈥夆墹鈥塛CS<1, 1鈥夆墹鈥塛CS<2, and WCS>2, respectively. The mean PHQ-9 score was 3.27鈥壜扁4.25 (range: 0鈥27) for all participants. The prevalence of depression was 9.11% overall, and participants in quartile 3 tended to have the lowest rates of depression (Quartile 1: 9.49%; Quartile 2: 9.95%; Quartile 3: 7.03%; Quartile 4: 8.75%; p鈥=鈥0.014). Among the four WCS quartiles, differences with statistical significance were noted in age, race, education level, hypertension, diabetes, insomnia, BMI, total cholesterol, HDL-C, LDL-C, triglycerides and PHQ-9鈥夆墺鈥10 (all p鈥<鈥0.05). The statistical significance was not satisfied by the difference in gender, or PHQ-9 score (all p鈥>鈥0.05) (Table听1).

Table 1 Baseline characteristics of participants

Association between weekend catch-up sleep and depression

The findings of the multivariate logistic regression analysis evaluating the relationship between WCS and depression are shown in Table听2. The present results showed that 1鈥2听h of catch-up sleep on weekends was associated with a lower PHQ-9 score and a lower risk of depression. However, no such association was found for other groups.

Table 2 Association between weekend catch-up sleep and depression

In the entirely adjusting model (model 2), a negative correlation between quartile three and depression was discovered (OR鈥=鈥0.74, 95% CI: 0.55, 0.99), demonstrating that every unit increase in WCS was associated with a 26% lower likelihood of depression when catching up on sleep between 1 and 2听h over the weekend.

Subgroup analysis

To assess the consistency of the correlation between depression and WCS in different subgroups of the population, we performed subgroup analyses (Table听3). The results showed no interaction with WCS and depression in all subgroup analyses (all p values鈥>鈥0.05). There was a more pronounced relationship between WCS and depression in subjects who were male, 40鈥59 years of age and hypertensive (OR鈥=鈥0.89, 0.91, 0.92 respectively), indicating that the correlation between catching up on 1鈥2听h of sleep on weekends and reducing the possibility of getting depressed was more significant in a population of hypertensive men aged 40鈥59 years.

Table 3 Subgroup analysis for the association between WCS and depression

Discussions

The relationship between WCS and depression was evaluated by this cross-sectional investigation, which was broadly representative and contained 7,795 individuals. The primary discovery of this study is that American adults who get 1鈥2听h of catch-up sleep on weekends are less likely to suffer from depression. Moreover, this result was more pronounced in the population of middle-aged men with hypertension. The present results indicated that moderate catch-up sleep on weekends may reduce the occurrence of depression.

Sleep is deeply related to mental health. Our findings show that 65.2% of individuals with depression also reported experiencing insomnia, highlighting the strong link between insomnia and depressive symptoms, consistent with previous studies [15, 16]. Therefore, screening and treating sleep disorders are critical components of comprehensive depression management. However, another subset of depressed patients reported oversleeping [17]. A 2015 meta-analysis that included seven prospective studies showed that insufficient or excessive sleep duration was strongly linked to a higher possibility of depression in adults [18]. With socio-economic development, longer working hours and abundant recreational activities have squeezed our sleep time. A growing number of people have begun to use the weekend to cover up for the sleep shortfall on weekdays. WCS has been shown to have a significant inverse association with the development of metabolic disorders [19], dyslipidemia [20], cardiovascular disease [21], and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease [22]. The findings of a previous cross-sectional study of 10,123 adolescents in the U.S. showed that adolescents who did not differ in the amount of sleep they got on weekends and weekdays or who had a difference of over 2听h (oversleeping on weekends) were more at risk for depression, anxiety, and suicidal ideation [23]. In addition, a study in 2021 that explored the link between WCS and depression, which included a total of 5,550 Koreans, revealed the findings through multivariate regression analysis that participants with 1鈥2听h of WCS duration showed a substantially reduced likelihood of experiencing depression compared to participants with 0听h of WCS duration (OR鈥=鈥0.517, 95% CI鈥=鈥0.309鈥0.865) [24]. These are in line with our study. Moderate WCS may serve as a simple and accessible behavioral intervention to mitigate the adverse effects of sleep deprivation on mental health.

In the general population, women are more likely than men to experience both insomnia and depression, a pattern that has been widely documented in the literature [25, 26]. In our study, the proportion of women was also slightly higher than men among individuals with insomnia and depression (56.3% and 61.8%, respectively). Biological factors, such as hormonal fluctuations during the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, and menopause, play a significant role in increasing the susceptibility of women to these conditions [27]. Hormonal changes can disrupt the regulation of sleep-wake cycles and emotional stability [28], thereby contributing to higher rates of insomnia and depression in women. Additionally, psychosocial factors may further exacerbate these gender differences. Women are more likely to take on caregiving responsibilities and experience greater exposure to chronic stressors, which can negatively impact both sleep quality and mental health. Our study found that the protective association between moderate weekend catch-up sleep (WCS) and depression was more pronounced in middle-aged men with hypertension. This finding could reflect gender differences in how sleep deprivation and WCS impact mental health. Hypertension is often associated with heightened sympathetic nervous system activity [29] and chronic low-grade inflammation [30], both of which are key contributors to depression. Moderate WCS may help mitigate depressive symptoms in hypertensive individuals by stabilizing the sympathetic nervous system, reducing cortisol levels, and alleviating systemic inflammation [31]. Middle age is a period of increasing health challenges and psychosocial stress, with men often facing greater work-related pressure and social responsibilities than women. These factors make middle-aged men more vulnerable to the effects of sleep deprivation, further heightening their risk of depression. WCS may act as a buffer, relieving accumulated stress and providing significant protective effects against depression in this high-risk group. Consequently, the restorative impact of WCS may be particularly impactful in reducing depression risk among middle-aged men with hypertension. This provides recommendations for prospective personalized preventive management of different population classifications of depressed patients in the United States.

A variety of complex processes may explain the linkage involving the length of sleep and despair. One hypothesis suggests that sleep deprivation or oversleeping may increase inflammatory markers (e.g., IL-6, TNF, and CRP) through activation of the sympathetic nervous system and 尾-adrenergic signaling, which elevates levels of NF-魏B, a critical transcriptional control pathway in the inflammatory signaling cascade response. It activates inflammatory gene expression [32]. There was also a strong link between inflammatory mechanisms and depression, with markers of inflammation significantly higher in depressed than in non-depressed individuals [33]. Moderate catch-up sleep during the weekend may have beneficial health effects by stabilizing the sympathetic nervous system and lowering markers of inflammation, thereby reducing depressive symptoms. On the other hand, it has been shown that major depressive disorder is associated with disruption of the rapid eye movement sleep period [34]. In the classic depressive model, olfactory bulbectomized rats have markedly abnormal rapid eye movement sleep during the light period [35], a characteristic change that has been observed in other animal models of depression [36]. In the sleep electroencephalograms recorded in depressed patients, it was observed that non-fast eye movement sleep periods were reduced, and the distribution of delta activity was disturbed. In contrast, rapid eye movement sleep periods were prolonged, and sleep density deepened [37]. It is well known that aberrant hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis circadian activity is linked to depression [38]. The circadian system controls sleep-wake cycles, including duration, structure, and continuity [39]. Workday sleep deprivation may be disrupting the circadian rhythm system, making the sleep-wake cycle disorganized, while weekend catch-up sleep, a new sleep pattern adapted to the current pace of life in our society, repairs the circadian rhythm system to a certain extent through the subjective perceived quality of sleep, leading to a reduction in the incidence of depression. However, prolonged sleep may cause abnormal photoperiod, sleep fragmentation, fatigue, depression, and even an increased risk of death [40]. This might explain the results of our study.

There are several advantages to this research. First, the data used in this research came from NHANES, a national sample of people based on an established procedure. The research samples are more representative since all analyses considered the proper NHANES sampling weights. We conducted a subgroup analysis and corrected for uncertainties to make the findings more dependable. Nonetheless, it is essential to acknowledge the limits of this research. First, the causal connection between WCS and depression could not be clarified because it was a cross-sectional study. Second, self-reported data on sleep duration may be less accurate than the measurements. In addition, due to the significant missing data on prescription drug use in the NHANES database, this study did not include information on participants鈥 medication use. Given that medications such as antidepressants or sedatives may influence both sleep duration and depressive symptoms, this remains a potential confounding factor. Future studies should incorporate more complete medication use data to provide a more comprehensive and precise analysis.

Conclusion

Individuals who catch up on 1鈥2听h of sleep on weekends have a reduced risk of depression compared to those without WCS among U.S. adults, with the association being particularly strong in middle-aged men with hypertension. No significant differences in depression risk were observed for individuals with 0鈥1 or >鈥2听h of WCS. These findings suggest that moderate WCS could serve as a simple, low-cost strategy to prevent depression, particularly in high-risk populations such as middle-aged hypertensive men. Incorporating sleep assessments and promoting balanced sleep recovery into clinical and public health practices may enhance the prevention and management of depression. Further research is needed to explore the physiological mechanisms underlying the link between sleep regulation and depression.

Data availability

The datasets analyzed during the current study are available in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey repository, https://www.cdc.gov/Nchs/Nhanes/.

Abbreviations

WCS:

Weekend catch-up sleep

NHANES:

National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

NCHS:

National Center for Health Statistics

CDC:

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

BMI:

Body mass index

GED:

General educational development

SD:

Standard deviation

ANOVA:

Analysis of variance

HDL-C:

High-density lipoprotein cholesterol

LDL-C:

Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol

PHQ-9:

Patient Health Questionnaire

OR:

Odd ratio

95% CI:

95% confidence interval

IL-6:

Interleukin- 6

TNF:

Tumor necrosis factor

CRP:

C-reactive protein

狈贵-魏叠:

Nuclear factor kappa-B

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Acknowledgements

We would like to thank all participants in this study.

Funding

This research was supported by the grant (#3502Z20224ZD1075) from the Xiamen medical and sanitary guidance project.

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Authors

Contributions

Lingying Le collected and analyzed the data, wrote the manuscript. Ziwei Lan revised the manuscript. Chenxi Chen designed the study and reviewed the manuscript. All authors reviewed the manuscript. The authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Chenxi Chen.

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Data collection for the NHANES was approved by the NCHS Research Ethics Review Board (ERB). An individual investigator utilizing the publicly available NHANES data do not need to file the institution internal review board (IRB).

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Not applicable.

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The authors declare no competing interests.

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Le, L., Lan, Z. & Chen, C. Association between weekend catch-up sleep and depression in US adults. 樱花视频 25, 439 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-025-21551-8

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-025-21551-8

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