- Research
- Published:
Modeling factors related to earthquake preparedness: a structural equation modeling approach
樱花视频 volume听25, Article听number:听431 (2025)
Abstract
Introduction
Global evidence suggests that natural disasters are on the rise, and that earthquake harm disproportionally impacts developing countries. To mitigate these harms, disaster preparedness is an important behavioral strategy in earthquake risk mitigation. However, there is limited evidence about the levels of preparedness in developing countries, especially Iran. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate earthquake preparedness among the general public, using the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) as a theoretical framework.
Method
This methodological study was conducted in Iran in 2022, involving 302 participants selected through stratified random sampling. Data was collected using a valid and reliable questionnaire. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was employed to analyze TPB constructs, including attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and intentions, in relation to earthquake preparedness behaviors. The statistical analyses encompassed descriptive statistics, t-tests, ANOVA, correlation coefficients, confirmatory factor analysis, and structural equation modeling.
Results
Results show that attitudes toward disaster preparedness, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control significantly (<鈥0.05) influenced residents鈥 disaster preparedness intentions. Additionally, there was good model fit of the TPB in explaining earthquake preparedness behavior. For confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) of TPB model the fit indices were CMin/df鈥=鈥1.35 (<鈥3), RMSEA鈥=鈥0.03 (<鈥0.05); CFI鈥=鈥0.96 (>鈥0.95); TLI鈥=鈥0.95 (=鈥0.95), and for SEM model they were CMin/df鈥=鈥1.36 (<鈥3), RMSEA鈥=鈥0.03 (<鈥0.05); CFI鈥=鈥0.96 (>鈥0.95); TLI鈥=鈥0.96 (>鈥0.95).
Conclusion
The overall fit indexes were acceptable indicating the TPB model is a valid and reliable measurement model for screening population-level readiness for earthquake preparedness, developing and/or implementing health promotion interventions. The findings also suggest that disaster education programs should emphasize the importance of attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control in promoting disaster preparedness.
Introduction
Disasters are inherent in human existence, transcending borders and posing grave threats to lives and economies [1,2,3]. Global data spanning from 1900 to 2020 reveals 15,545 natural disasters, causing 3,243,008 deaths, 1,035,741 injuries, and affecting 8听billion people [4]. The burden of these disasters is disproportionately borne by developing countries, especially in terms of human costs [5, 6]. Among the myriad of hazards, earthquakes stand out as both the most significant and deadliest [4], exhibiting a global upswing [5]. Striking with unpredictable force, they leave societies vulnerable due to insufficient preparedness [6]. This vulnerability undermines community resilience, yielding detrimental outcomes [7]. In the complexity of managing disasters, civil society and local communities play pivotal roles in enhancing resilience, particularly in the context of earthquakes [7, 8].
A key focus in disaster management is the reduction of earthquake risk and the enhancement of countries鈥 capacities to respond, necessitating appropriate preparations involving a range of interventions [9]. The importance of increasing awareness and educating civil society becomes particularly pronounced when there are low levels of awareness among the general population of a country [10].
International research into earthquake preparedness has explored various elements of society including governments [11,12,13], business sector [14, 15], higher education [16, 17], hospitals [18], nurses [19], civil society [8], and communities [20,21,22]. With the largest amount of research being conducted on communities or residents of a country.
Iran, with a population exceeding 80听million, stands out as one of the world鈥檚 most perilous nations, facing a high frequency of known disasters [23]. A significant portion of its populace is consistently exposed to natural calamities, particularly earthquakes, emerging as the country鈥檚 largest and most devastating natural disasters. Over the past 90 years, these seismic events have claimed the lives of more than 180,000 individuals [24]. The risk of earthquakes in Iran has shown an increasing trend in recent years [25].
Preparedness and safety across various sectors of society is a crucial pre-disaster activity [26,27,28]. Initiatives should be implemented to enhance societal preparedness, aiming to minimize the impact of earthquakes [20, 29, 30]. Several studies have assessed earthquake preparedness in different segments of Iranian society, revealing suboptimal preparedness levels [30,31,32]. However, these investigations often lack a theoretical foundation and the application of advanced structural equation modeling techniques to evaluate relationships. Moreover, there is a notable gap in understanding the determinants of earthquake preparedness in private households, particularly in the Southwest region of Iran, warranting further research as emphasized by scholars [31].
Identifying factors that drive behavior change towards healthier practices is fundamental to designing effective interventions. This necessitates the application of theories to inform the design of interventions [33, 34]. The theory of planned behavior (TPB) has been applied to explore disaster preparedness and provides an opportunity to identify the factors to plan for improved public health interventions and responses to earthquakes [35].
This Theory (TPB) (Fig.听1) explains how beliefs, attitudes, and perceived control shape behavior intention [36]. It has been used to predict health behaviors, including disaster preparedness [37, 38]. Studies on TPB and disaster preparedness reveal its role in influencing intentions and actions [39,40,41].
A systematic review by Ejeta et al.鈥榮 [42] underscores the importance of applying this theory regarding earthquake preparedness, and Iranian research accentuates TPB鈥檚 significance in earthquake readiness [43]. Ong et al. [41]used TPB and SEM, identifying attitude, severity perception, and subjective norms as key to disaster preparedness intention. Attitude, subjective norms, community participation, community-agency trust [40], positive psychological capital [44], perceived risk [45], severity, and vulnerability [46] were significant predictors of disaster preparedness intentions. Researchers found attitudes to be most predictive of disaster preparedness intentions [47].
These studies highlight the significance of the TPB constructs, such as attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control, in understanding individuals鈥 intentions and behaviors regarding disaster preparedness across different contexts and hazards. Despite this wealth of global research, a conspicuous research gap persists in understanding the significance of these constructs in the unique context of earthquake preparedness in Iran. To date, there has been a lack of research examining the significance of attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control in the context of earthquake preparedness in Iran. Consequently, this study was undertaken to employ structural equation modeling to model the factors associated with earthquake preparedness among the general population in Iran.
Hypothesis
Considering the limited investigation into the factors shaping earthquake preparedness intentions and behaviors in Iran, this study aimed to assess the preparedness of the general public by employing the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) as its theoretical framework. A multi-structural model (depicted in Fig.听2) was formulated to explore the interconnections among Attitudes, Subjective Norms, and Perceived Behavioral Control concerning intentions and behaviors related to earthquake preparedness in Iran. The hypothesis posited that Attitudes, Subjective Norms, and Perceived Behavioral Control exerted significant influence on intentions to participate in earthquake preparedness behaviors, subsequently fostering engagement in such preparedness actions.
Methods
Participants and sampling
This methodological study aimed to determine factors related to earthquake preparedness in Ahvaz, 2022. Ahvaz is the capital of Khuzestan province in southwest Iran and is estimated to have a population of about 1,300,000 [48]. Its area is about 8135.9 square km (Longitude: 48掳 41鈥 3.12鈥 E, Latitude: 31掳 19鈥 8.44鈥 N) [49].
The study utilized an a-priori sample size calculator designed for structural equation models [50]. This tool calculates the minimum required sample size for a study employing a structural equation model (SEM), considering the number of observed and latent variables, the expected effect size, and specified levels of probability and statistical power (46鈥48). In our study, consisting of 33 observed variables, 5 latent variables, and assuming a medium effect size (0.3), with 伪鈥=鈥0.05 and power鈥=鈥80%, the calculator determined the minimum sample size needed for the structural complexity of the model to be 308.
A total of 308 questionnaires were distributed from April to June 2022 to participants who met the inclusion criteria of providing informed consent, being 15 years of age or older, and being able to communicate in Persian. The only exclusion criterion was failure to fully complete the questionnaire. The records for six individuals included more than 50% missing values. So, they were excluded (complete case analysis) from the analysis. The sampling procedure was done as follows: First, we randomly selected healthcare centers in Ahvaz, ensuring coverage of both rural and urban areas. Then, experienced health volunteers (Rabet-e Behdasht) at each center were tasked with inviting individuals within their catchment areas to complete the questionnaire online. While we considered representation across dimensions such as rural/urban location and gender, the sampling approach was more focused on ensuring diverse participation rather than adhering strictly to stratified random sampling.
Experienced health volunteers (Rabet-e Behdasht) introduced themselves via email or social media channels, explaining the research objectives before inviting them to participate in the research. After receiving their written consent forms, research questionnaires were distributed online among the subjects. Online recruitment was selected due to the COVID-19 pandemic restrictions.
Measures and data collection
Data were collected by using a questionnaire that was developed in alignment with Ajzen鈥檚 guidelines [37] and a qualitative study [1], which aimed to measure earthquake preparedness and related factors. The questionnaire (Additional file 1) was divided into two parts, the first part included demographic information (8items), and awareness (3 items) which were scored based on true or false responses. The second part consisted of items addressing constructs of TPB:
-
1.
Behavior (earthquake preparedness items like 鈥渁n earthquake emergency bag with its essentials is prepared at home and kept in a suitable place鈥) was assessed using a 15-item, five-point Likert scale that ranged from 鈥渁lways鈥 to 鈥渘ever鈥, with higher scores indicating greater performance (total score range: 15鈥75). The reliability of the scale was evaluated using Cronbach鈥檚 alpha, and it was found to be satisfactory at 0.907.
-
2.
Attitudes toward earthquake preparedness were evaluated utilizing a semantic differential scale consisting of 6 adjectives pertaining to earthquake preparedness, for instance, 鈥淚n my opinion, endeavors to prepare for earthquakes are鈥︹ with response choices spanning from 鈥渁bsolutely useful鈥 to 鈥渁bsolutely harmful鈥. The total score on the scale ranged from 6 to 42, with higher scores indicating more positive attitudes. The reliability of the scale was evaluated using Cronbach鈥檚 alpha, and the obtained value of 0.888 indicated satisfactory internal consistency.
-
3.
Subjective norms were assessed using 6 items, such as 鈥淚 am expected to prepare for earthquakes properly鈥 with response options ranging from 鈥淪trongly agree鈥 to 鈥淪trongly disagree鈥. The total score ranged from 6 to 36, with higher scores indicating greater influence from other people to engage in the behavior. The scale鈥檚 reliability was assessed using Cronbach鈥檚 alpha and the obtained value of 0.872 indicated satisfactory internal consistency.
-
4.
Perceived behavioral control was assessed using 4 items, assessing individuals鈥 beliefs about their ability to perform the behavior, e.g., I am confident that I can take effective actions to prepare for earthquakes, the total score ranged from 4 to 20, with a higher score indicating greater perceived control over the behavior. The reliability of the scale was measured by Cronbach鈥檚 alpha and the obtained value of 0.791 indicated satisfactory internal consistency.
-
5.
Intention was assessed using 2 items (e.g., 鈥淚 strongly want to avoid earthquakes from now on鈥) and used a 5-point Likert scale from strongly agree to strongly disagree. The total score ranged from 2 to 10, with higher scores indicating stronger intentions. The reliability of the scale was measured using Cronbach鈥檚 alpha and the obtained value of 0.892 indicated satisfactory internal consistency.
Data analysis
IBM SPSS (version 18.0) was used to analyze the data [51]. Descriptive statistics were used to describe the data. T-tests were used to compare means of two groups, chi-square tests for comparing categorical variables, and ANOVA tests for analyzing the association between socio-demographic characteristics and constructs of the TPB. Univariate associations between participants鈥 age, income, knowledge, years of education, and different dimensions of the questionnaire were assessed with Pearson鈥檚 correlation coefficient tests. Two independent samples T-tests were used to compare continuous variables between males/females. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to confirm the questionnaire鈥檚 factorial structure. Multiple linear regression analysis was used to identify factors affecting earthquake preparedness behaviors. The relationship between demographic variables, the constructs of TPB, and dependent variables were examined to verify the TPB. A p-value鈥<鈥0.05 was considered statistically significant. The backward elimination method was used to identify the final model.
The software package used for conducting the inferential data analyses was Analysis of Moment Structures (AMOS) [52]. A test of multivariate normality was initially conducted. Manifest variables were evaluated for correlations amongst measures to validate them as indicators of the underlying constructs. Each construct was developed and analyzed separately. The strength of the correlations between the constructs and the manifest variables was assessed using squared multiple correlations and standardized regression weights. Standardized regression weights exceeding 0.3 were considered adequate measures of the construct [53].
Results
Among all participants, 302 responded to the survey questionnaire completely. Demographic details are reflected in Table听1, which illustrates that participants鈥 mean age was 34.98鈥壜扁10.27 years (range, 15鈥67 years), and their mean years of education were 15.91鈥壜扁3.27. Most participants were from urban areas (89.1%) and single (59.9%). Most participants were of medium socio-economic status (63.9%) and had studied earthquake preparation (73.2%).
The association between socio-demographic characteristics and construct of the theory of planned behavior is presented in Table听2.
The study included a total of 302 participants. On average, female participants had higher scores in all dimensions except for Perceived Behavioral Control. However, the difference was only significant in the Attitude dimension (p鈥=鈥0.04). There were no significant differences observed in the other dimensions (Table听3).
Structural equation modeling (SEM)
A goodness-of-fit of data into the analysis of pathways using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) of TPB model (Fig.听3) was found: CMin/df鈥=鈥1.35 (<鈥3), RMSEA鈥=鈥0.03 (<鈥0.05); CFI鈥=鈥0.96 (>鈥0.95); TLI鈥=鈥0.95 (=鈥0.95) (Table听4). While a goodness-of-fit of data into the TPB measurement model using SEM (Fig.听4) was found: CMin/df鈥=鈥1.36 (<鈥3), RMSEA鈥=鈥0.03 (<鈥0.05); CFI鈥=鈥0.96 (>鈥0.95); TLI鈥=鈥0.96 (>鈥0.95) (Table听5).
The SEM analysis (Table听5) of the relationships between the TPB constructs showed that attitudes significantly predicted subjective norms (p鈥=鈥0.015). Moreover, subjective norms were found to significantly predict intention (p鈥=鈥0.001), perceived behavioral control (p鈥<鈥0.0001), and behavior (p鈥&濒迟;鈥0.0001).
Overall, the strength and direction of relationships between predictors (Attitude, Subjective Norms, Perceived Behavioral Control) and outcomes (Intention, Behavior) in the SEM are illustrated in Table听6. It provides insights into how these factors influence each other and contribute to earthquake preparedness. Importantly, intention to engage in earthquake preparedness is directly affected by attitudes (0.003), subjective norms (0.50), and perceived behavioral control (0.23).
Discussion
To date, limited research has explored the factors influencing earthquake preparedness. This study addressed this gap by using the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) and structural equation modeling to examine how attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral.control shape preparedness intentions and behaviors. The results show that TPB is appropriate for exploring earthquake preparedness, in Iran. Importantly, the identification that attitudes are the most important construct in determining earthquake preparedness has important implications for disaster preparedness program development and implementation. Importantly, the results suggest that attitudes play an important role in shaping normative beliefs, and subsequently shaping intentions to engage in earthquake preparedness behaviors. The study also found that subjective norms significantly predicted both perceived behavioral control and actual behavior, indicating that social pressure and expectations can play a significant role in motivating individuals to prepare for earthquakes.
This reinforces the utility of TPB in understanding and promoting preparedness behaviors. The robustness of our model is supported by acceptable overall fit indexes, attesting to its validity and reliability as a measurement tool.
Moreover, the findings aligns with previous evidence indicating that women exhibit more positive attitudes toward earthquake preparedness than men [32], suggesting a potential pioneering role for women in promoting preparedness. Additionally, the results affirm the importance of subjective norms relationship to intentions to engage in earthquake preparedness behaviors [41], consistent with broader studies on earthquake preparedness in Iran [54] and globally [55]. This emphasizes the need for public health initiatives to extend beyond individual attitudes and focus on cultivating supportive social norms, possibly through strategies related to creating norms of power and knowledge about disasters [56].
Nevertheless, this study鈥檚 outcomes run counter to certain prior research. To be specific, the findings suggest that perceived behavioral control positively fosters earthquake preparedness, diverging from research conducted in Iran and other regions where no significant impact of perceived behavioral control on intentions to participate in earthquake preparedness was identified [40, 55]. Similarly, the lack of a direct relationship between attitudes and intentions to engage in earthquake preparedness contradicts existing research that found positive attitudes towards earthquake preparedness to be positive contributors to intentions to engage in earthquake preparedness [40, 41, 47, 55]. This underscores the nuanced nature of preparedness motivations and the need for tailored interventions.
This study introduces the concept that the increase in perceived behavioral control and engagement in earthquake preparedness is further increased when supported by an enabling environment [57]. Suggesting that public health practitioners should consider the role of perceived behavioral control in promoting preparedness and recognize that attitudes alone may not be sufficient to drive intentions and behaviors. Additionally, creating an enabling environment that supports individuals in their preparedness efforts can further enhance engagement in earthquake preparedness behaviors.
Importantly, these findings challenge the conventional understanding that intentions reliably predict engagement in earthquake preparedness behaviors. This discrepancy prompts a reconsideration of the assumed link between intentions and behavior, advocating for a more nuanced approach in intervention strategies [40].
To foster earthquake preparedness behaviors, public health engagement through education and awareness programs is crucial [58]. This study provides important insights into the determinants of earthquake preparedness in Iran, and its findings have important implications for disaster preparedness program development and implementation in the country. Specifically, this study provides a measurement model, with appropriate fit indexes, for developing and accessing health promotion interventions or interventions using the TPB. This has been lacking in previous research into earthquake preparedness.
Limitations
Some of the limitations of this study are that it relied on online surveys which have been known to be linked to problems of describing the population to which the surveys are distributed, and that bias may be introduced based on the respondents who self-select into the sample [59] especially when we consider the lack of computer literacy or access to computers. These limitations impact generalizability [59], which can be improved by doing future studies that utilize in-person or telephonic interviews [60]. The other limitation of this study is that the final sample size (n鈥=鈥302) was slightly below the calculated minimum sample size of 308 (response rate鈥=鈥98%), which may have had a slight impact on statistical power.
Conclusion
The results of this study show that the TPB is appropriate for exploring earthquake preparedness in developing countries, such as Iran. Importantly it provides the paths for determining earthquake preparedness intentions and behavior, making it possible to manipulate these to promote earthquake preparedness among residents. The most important ones are attitudes, and subjective norms, which play a pivotal role in shaping beliefs and intentions to take earthquake preparedness actions. While also indicating that promoting knowledge of earthquakes is important, especially among those without prior experience. Importantly, this study provides a measurement model, with appropriate fit indexes, for screening population-level readiness for earthquake preparedness, developing and/or evaluating health promotion interventions.
Data availability
No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.
Abbreviations
- TPB:
-
Theory of Planned Behavior
- SEM:
-
Structural Equation Modeling
- CFA:
-
Confirmatory Factor Analysis
References
Fatehpanah A, et al. Water safety in drought: an indigenous knowledge-based qualitative study. J Water Health. 2020;18(5):692鈥703.
Hogan DE, Burstein JL. Disaster medicine. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2007.
Khan A, et al. The dilemma of natural disasters: impact on economy, fiscal position, and foreign direct investment alongside Belt and Road Initiative countries. Sci Total Environ. 2020;743:140578.
Guha-Sapir D et al. Annual disaster statistical review 2016. The numbers and trends, 2017: pp. 1鈥91.
S脰ZC脺 U. Natural disaster literacy curriculum proposal. Afet ve Risk Dergisi. 2020;3(1):70鈥9.
Shams S, Shabani Asl MR. An analysis of earthquake preparedness in Tehran with emphasis on the Resilience Theory (Case Study of Tehran District 4). J Hous Rural Environ. 2020;39(171):129鈥44.
Gerges F, et al. A perspective on quantifying resilience: combining community and infrastructure capitals. Sci Total Environ. 2023;859:160187.
Yuan Y et al. Devastating earthquakes facilitating civil societies in developing countries: across-national analysis. Earthq Disasters, 2021: pp. 84鈥102.
Mili RR, Hosseini KA, Izadkhah YO. Developing a holistic model for earthquake risk assessment and disaster management interventions in urban fabrics. Int J Disaster risk Reduct. 2018;27:355鈥65.
Hosseini KA, Izadkhah YO. From earthquake and safety school drills to safe school-resilient communities: a continuous attempt for promoting community-based disaster risk management in Iran. Int J Disaster risk Reduct. 2020;45:101512.
Dariagan JD, Atando RB, Asis JLB. Disaster preparedness of local governments in Panay Island. Philippines Nat Hazards. 2021;105(2):1923鈥44.
Shmueli DF, et al. How can regulatory systems be assessed? The case of earthquake preparedness in Israel. Evaluation. 2019;25(1):80鈥98.
Husna C, et al. Disaster preparedness among disaster management agency officers: a study from rural and urban areas in Aceh, Indonesia. Int J Disaster Resil Built Environ. 2021;13(4):484鈥97.
Alam E. Earthquake hazard knowledge, preparedness, and risk reduction in the Bangladeshi readymade garment industry. Sustainability. 2020;12(23):10147.
Egbelakin T, et al. Preparation of small to medium-sized enterprises to earthquake disaster: Napier and Dunedin case studies. Bull New Z Soc Earthq Eng. 2018;51(4):171鈥82.
Sohrabizadeh S, et al. Earthquake preparedness in higher education structures: a case study of an academic institute in Tehran, Iran. Int J Disaster Resil Built Environ. 2019;10(2/3):175鈥87.
Ozdemir R, Demir C, Catak B. Faculty members鈥 earthquake preparedness levels and their related factors: a cross-sectional study from a university in a high-risk earthquake zone in Turkey. J Injury Violence Res. 2021;13(2):151.
Roshani D, Karimian A. Earthquake preparedness in Iranian hospitals: a systematic review and Meta-analysis. Bull Emerg Trauma. 2021;9(1):1.
Labrague L, et al. Disaster preparedness among nurses: a systematic review of literature. Int Nurs Rev. 2018;65(1):41鈥53.
Rezabeigi Davarani E, et al. Factors related to earthquake preparedness of households based on social-cognitive theory constructs: a systematic review. Front Public Health. 2023;11:987418.
Kusumastuti RD, et al. Knowledge management and natural disaster preparedness: a systematic literature review and a case study of East Lombok, Indonesia. Int J Disaster risk Reduct. 2021;58:102223.
Shaffril HAM, Samah AA, Kamarudin S. Speaking of the devil: a systematic literature review on community preparedness for earthquakes. Nat Hazards. 2021;108(3):2393鈥419.
Hosseinighousheh S, et al. Health in disasters in Iranian schools: a systematic review. J Educ Health Promot. 2021;10:365.
Nazari S et al. Examining the performance of responding to the Khoy earthquake 2022, challenges, strengths, and lessons learned: thematic analysis. 2023.
Rostami M, et al. Experiences of operating room nurses in disaster preparedness of a great disaster in Iran: a qualitative study. 樱花视频 Emerg Med. 2023;23(1):1鈥19.
Hamid K, Peyravi M, Marzaleh MA. Investigating the preparedness of Iranian families in the face of disasters. Disaster Med Pub Health Prep. 2023;17:e116.
Mokhtari S, et al. Health, Safety, and Environmental Status of the Urban Parks in Iran: a systematic review. Health Emergencies Disasters Q. 2019;4(4):179鈥84.
Hosseinighousheh SN, et al. Crisis Management at Iranian schools: a review study. Health Emergencies Disasters Q. 2020;5(2):63鈥70.
Rostami M, et al. Experiences of operating room nurses in disaster preparedness of a great disaster in Iran: a qualitative study. 樱花视频 Emerg Med. 2023;23(1):138.
Kivi HK, Peyravi M, Marzaleh MA. Investigating the preparedness of Iranian families in the face of disasters. Disaster Med Pub Health Prep. 2023;17:e116.
Ardalan A, et al. Household disaster preparedness in the Islamic Republic of Iran: 2015 estimation. East Mediterr Health J. 2020;26(4):382鈥7.
Rostami-Moez M, et al. Earthquake preparedness of households and its predictors based on health belief model. 樱花视频. 2020;20(1):1鈥8.
Sheikhbardsiri H, et al. An operational exercise for disaster assessment and emergency preparedness in south of Iran. J Public Health Manage Pract. 2020;26(5):451鈥6.
Araban M, Baharzadeh K, Karimy M. Nutrition modification aimed at enhancing dietary iron and folic acid intake: an application of health belief model in practice. Eur J Public Health. 2017;27(2):287鈥92.
Hung T-J. Exploring earthquake response through the Lens of the protective action decision model. Oklahoma State University; 2023.
Karimy M, et al. Oral health behavior among school children aged 11鈥13 years in Saveh, Iran: an evaluation of a theory-driven intervention. 樱花视频 Pediatr. 2020;20(1):476.
Ajzen I. The theory of planned behavior: frequently asked questions. Hum Behav Emerg Technol. 2020;2(4):314鈥24.
Ajzen I. The theory of planned behavior. Organ Behav Hum Decis Process. 1991;50(2):179鈥211.
Hosokawa Y, Ohtomo S, Kimura R. Factors affecting behavior and behavioral intentions of expectant and nursing mothers regarding Disaster Preparation. J Disaster Res. 2022;17(6):1068鈥79.
Zaremohzzabieh Z, et al. Household preparedness for future earthquake disaster risk using an extended theory of planned behavior. Int J Disaster Risk Reduct. 2021;65:102533.
Ong AKS, et al. Factors affecting intention to prepare for mitigation of the big one earthquake in the Philippines: integrating protection motivation theory and extended theory of planned behavior. Int J Disaster Risk Reduct. 2021;63:102467.
Ejeta LT, Ardalan A, Paton D. Application of behavioral theories to disaster and emergency health preparedness: a systematic review. PLoS Curr, 2015. 7.
Najafi M et al. The theory of planned behavior and disaster preparedness. PLoS Curr, 2017. 9.
Wang H, et al. Study on the formation mechanism of medical and health organization staff鈥檚 emergency preparedness behavioral intention: from the perspective of psychological capital. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021;18(16):8246.
Ng SL. Effects of risk perception on disaster preparedness toward typhoons: an application of the extended theory of planned behavior. Int J Disaster Risk Sci. 2022;13(1):100鈥13.
Kurata YB, et al. Determining factors affecting preparedness beliefs among filipinos on Taal Volcano eruption in Luzon, Philippines. Int J Disaster Risk Reduct. 2022;76:103035.
Wang J-J, Tsai N-Y. Factors affecting elementary and junior high school teachers鈥 behavioral intentions to school disaster preparedness based on the theory of planned behavior. Int J Disaster Risk Reduct. 2022;69:102757.
Iran statistics center. [cited 2023 2/1/2023]; Available from:
Ahvaz municipality. 2023 [cited 2023 12.05.2023]; Available from:
Westland JCJE. Lower bounds on sample size in structural equation modeling. c r Appl. 2010;9(6):476鈥87.
SPSS I. IBM statistical package for social services (Version 25). Seattle, WA: IBM; 2018.
Arbuckle J. AMOS (version 7.0)[Computer software]. Chicago: SPSS; 2006.
Collier J. Applied structural equation modeling using AMOS: Basic to advanced techniques. Routledge; 2020.
Yari A, Zarezadeh Y, Ostadtaghizadeh A. Prevalence of fatalistic attitudes toward earthquake disaster risk management in citizens of Tehran. Iran Int J Disaster risk Reduct. 2019;38:101181.
Vrselja I, Pand啪i膰 M, Glava拧 D. Predicting earthquake preparedness intention among Croatian residents: application of the theory of planned behaviour. Int J Psychol. 2023;58(2):124鈥33.
Rawsthorne M, Howard A, Joseph P. Normalising community-led, empowered, disaster planning: reshaping norms of power and knowledge. O帽ati Socio-Legal Ser. 2022;12(3):506鈥21.
Zivari F et al. How to improve public participation in disaster risk management: A case study of Buein Zahra, a small city in Iran. J脿mb谩: Journal of Disaster Risk Studies, 2019. 11(1): pp. 1鈥9.
Jonidi Jafari A, et al. Study of households鈥 preparedness for disasters and emergencies in West regions of Tehran Province, Iran. Health Emergencies Disasters Q. 2020;5(4):183鈥92.
Andrade C. The limitations of online surveys. Indian J Psychol Med. 2020;42(6):575鈥6.
Coughlan M, Cronin P, Ryan F. Survey research: process and limitations. Int J Therapy Rehabilitation. 2009;16(1):9鈥15.
Acknowledgements
The researchers would like to express their gratitude to the participants of the study. An ethical license was obtained from the ethics committee of Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences with the code IR.AJUMS.REC.1400.681.
Funding
Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran funded this study.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
MA designed the study and oversaw all elements of the study implementation, analysis, and write-up. All other authors assisted in the conducting, analysis, and write-up of the study. ACL predominantly focused on reviewing analysis and writing up the entire manuscript. All authors also read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
The Ethics Committee of Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran approved the study (IR.AJUMS.REC.1400.681). Informed consent from a parent and/or legal guardian for study participation, along with written informed consent was obtained from all participants, and all methods adhered to relevant guidelines and regulations.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
MA is an editorial board member of 樱花视频, the remaining authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Additional information
Publisher鈥檚 note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Electronic supplementary material
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article鈥檚 Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article鈥檚 Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit .
About this article
Cite this article
Fatehpanah, A., Maraghi, E., Coetzer-Liversage, A. et al. Modeling factors related to earthquake preparedness: a structural equation modeling approach. 樱花视频 25, 431 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-025-21568-z
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-025-21568-z