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Individual level of change: influence behaviour through change in knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs, skills of women or influencing the people who closely interact with women, such as social support networks, or modifying the home / family environment

Home based interventions

Education, psychosocial intervention, support or care delivered in the woman’s home by professional, peer or trained lay provider

Trained provider home visits through pregnancy and early childhood addressing prenatal and newborn care and maternal life skills [50]

Nurse home visits from 25 weeks of pregnancy to 2 years of age on prenatal health, competent caregiving, and maternal self-sufficiency. [34]

Psychosocial interventions

Interpersonal or informational activities or strategies that target biological, behavioural, cognitive, emotional, or social factors, delivered to the individual or group in a clinic or community setting

Brief advocacy interventions delivered by bilingual domestic violence advocate offering support, referral. [24]

Group cognitive behavioural or interpersonal therapy [37]

Prenatal and postnatal group nutrition counselling delivered by a bilingual lactation consultant [53]

Antenatal education by trained non-professional women in the community [48]

Peer or lay support

Lay or peer provider involved in range of activities such as advocacy, support, education

Peer led health advocacy program to ensure informed choice of healthcare for non-English speaking women [45]

Interpersonal psychotherapy in group sessions led by peers [26]

Individual phone-based peer support by mothers with a history of postpartum depression [26]

Approaches to overcome physical barriers or incentivise health or healthcare

Interventions that aim to overcome the physical barriers to health or health care such as vouchers, supplements, free baby equipment and transport

Provision of home equipment such as breast pump or supplemental nutrition support [53],

Provision of childcare during weekly antenatal and relapse prevention groups [25], vouchers for drug free urine samples and bonus for perfect attendance [25]

Written or digital education materials

Information given in writing, or digital provision (e.g., website, app) as a standalone intervention

One-time social support intervention by pamphlet, video or video and pamphlet [41]

25-min video on breastfeeding [53]

(2) Organisational level of change- Change in physical environment, attitudes or knowledge of service providers, policies, regulations and culture of services

Integrated or interdisciplinary programs

Interventions that support wider issues related to social determinants of health as well as pregnancy or postnatal care through integrating care or providing interdisciplinary services in one setting

Hospital based comprehensive interdisciplinary, adolescent specific prenatal and postnatal care program that provides psychiatric, social and nutritional services as an integrated program. [48]

Teenage mother and child program with in-depth psychological and nutritional assessment, medical care, education about pregnancy, birth, contraception and infant care, and individual counselling on financial management, school and work. [54]

Models of maternity care

Organisational or service models for maternity care. This includes midwifery models where midwives are the central care provider providing continuity or caseload work and group care led by midwives or other healthcare professionals

Group antenatal care using centering pregnancy model [28]

Midwifery models of care. [7]

Interventions targeting cultural barriers to clinical care

Strategies and interventions aiming to overcome cultural barriers to healthcare for example involving communities in designing and leading maternity services, education on cultural competency, navigator or link worker roles

Collaboration with indigenous communities to develop an integrated model of shared antenatal care including using aboriginal health workers and creating family friendly environments. [45]

Lay link workers spanning hospital and community settings that work alongside health professionals as ‘facilitators’ and ‘interpreters’ while providing educational content. [45]

Community controlled health service providing 1) transportation, informal childcare and home visits 2) female doctors and aboriginal health workers, cultural training for staff. [45]

Community midwife and aboriginal health workers provide culturally appropriate services in the community with community development programs. [45]

(3) Community level of change—Influence community beyond the individual and immediate contacts through delivering community services, and spaces or creating shared identities and relationships between organisations / networks

Community engagement and development

Interventions aiming to influence community beyond the individual and immediate contacts, through engaging community in designing and/or leading services or community development activities

Community controlled health service providing 1) transportation, informal childcare and home visits 2) female doctors and aboriginal health workers, cultural training for staff. [45]

Community wide health education and events and environment modification including changing to low sugar drinks at events. [50]

Media Campaign

Interventions aiming to influence community through education

Breastfeeding media campaign aiming to promote breastfeeding to indigenous communities. [50]

Community public service announcements, video, billboard and infant shirts within a broader intervention of health system design and individual education and support. [50]

(4) Environment, Policy level of change—Influence policy, advocacy, wider environments and structures that impact on health

Policies

A system or institution wide regulation or process intervention

Baby friendly hospital initiatives. [53]

Expansion of universal healthcare policies. [52]

Policies to limit pacifier use and promote skin to skin in hospital setting. [53]